[166] It was an ideal of love between two people not married to each other, although the man might be married to someone else. [192], Early on, manning a castle was a feudal duty of vassals to their magnates, and magnates to their kings, however this was later replaced with paid forces. WebBiological pest control is a method of controlling pests such as insects and mites by using other organisms. This led to the development of methods for measuring pressures within the gun, which involved cylindrical punches mounted in holes drilled at right angles through the barrel. During the First Crusade (10961099), the Frankish armies encountered walled settlements and forts that they indiscriminately referred to as castles, but which would not be considered as such under the modern definition. [154] Most Spanish castles were built from stone, whereas castles in Eastern Europe were usually of timber construction. [180] Settlements could also grow naturally around a castle, rather than being planned, due to the benefits of proximity to an economic centre in a rural landscape and the safety given by the defences. The empty string is the special case where the sequence has length zero, so there are no symbols in the string. [13] In contrast to previous assaults, from roadside bombings to haphazard ambushes, this attack was well-coordinated; fighters across different insurgent groups were able to precisely target key equipment, such as a wire-guided missile launcher, through a sustained and disciplined effort. [105], The concept, which originated in castles such as Krak des Chevaliers, was to remove the reliance on a central strongpoint and to emphasise the defence of the curtain walls. The tower is estimated to have taken 83,000average working days to complete, most of which was unskilled labour. In his patent he was careful to state that his claim was for the combination of graphite with sodium nitrate-based powder, rather than for either of the two individual technologies. Some retained a role in local administration and became law courts, while others are still handed down in aristocratic families as hereditary seats. The greatest threat to a lord's home or hall was fire as it was usually a wooden structure. The household was run by a chamberlain, while a treasurer took care of the estate's written records. [3], In its simplest terms, the definition of a castle accepted amongst academics is "a private fortified residence". Ryan M. Pitts, Bogar applied a tourniquet to his leg before manning another gun. In 1403, a force of 37archers successfully defended Caernarfon Castle against two assaults by Owain Glyndr's allies during a long siege, demonstrating that a small force could be effective. The militants withdrew about four hours later. [39], The musket appeared in the Ottoman Empire by 1465. Down through the centuries, Chinese inventions have had a profound effect on human culture. A simple, commonly cited, chemical equation for the combustion of gunpowder is: A balanced, but still simplified, equation is:[122], The exact percentages of ingredients varied greatly through the medieval period as the recipes were developed by trial and error, and needed to be updated for changing military technology.[123]. Multiple factors were considered when choosing a site, balancing between the need for a defendable position with other considerations such as proximity to resources. He also used the alias John Johnson while serving as caretaker of a cellarlocated just below the House of Lordsthat the plotters had leased in order to stockpile gunpowder. [43] The Chinese military book Wu Pei Chih (1621) later described Turkish muskets that used a rack-and-pinion mechanism, which was not known to have been used in European or Chinese firearms at the time. Because of their influence within the medieval household, women influenced construction and design, sometimes through direct patronage; historian Charles Coulson emphasises the role of women in applying "a refined aristocratic taste" to castles due to their long term residence. The Taliban briefly breached the wire of the observation post before being driven back. Handguns, which were initially unpredictable and inaccurate weapons, were not recorded until the 1380s. He relied on the support of those below him, as without the support of his more powerful tenants a lord could expect his power to be undermined. In earth and timber castles, the gateway was usually the first feature to be rebuilt in stone. The first round hit accurately, wounding or stunning every soldier present. They shoveled damp mill cake into a two-foot square box, placed this beneath a screw press and reduced it to half its volume. It was her duty to administer them directly, as the lord administered his own land. Royal households took essentially the same form as baronial households, although on a much larger scale and the positions were more prestigious. Thus, a gunpowder composition containing pure carbon would burn similarly to a match head, at best. The grain size varied from coarseabout the size of grains of wheat or corn (hence the name corned powder)to extremely fine. This led to the proliferation of towers, with an emphasis on flanking fire. The Chinese used the substance in rockets, in pyrotechnic projectors much like Roman candles, in crude cannon, and, according to some sources, in bombs thrown by mechanical artillery. [35] Cubbison wrote that a few days before the battle, on July 4, a U.S. Army helicopter mistakenly attacked and killed 17 civilians, including all of the doctors and nurses at a local clinic, infuriating local Afghans. [citation needed] This is less than TNT (4.7 megajoules per kilogram), or gasoline (47.2 megajoules per kilogram in combustion, but gasoline requires an oxidant; for instance, an optimized gasoline and O2 mixture releases 10.4 megajoules per kilogram, taking into account the mass of the oxygen). [42] The report found that despite reports earlier in July that 200 to 300 insurgents had been massing to attack another remote outpost in the vicinity, including numerous reports from local villagers that an attack was imminent, the commanders at Wanat had no reason to expect such a large frontal assault. Hillforts in Britain typically used earthworks rather than stone as a building material. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! FACT CHECK: We strive for accuracy and fairness. Willow charcoal, for example, was preferred for cannon powder and dogwood charcoal for small armsa preference substantiated by 19th-century tests. As such, early gunpowder technology was an important precursor of modern science. A projectile was fired horizontally into the pendulums bob (block of wood), which absorbed the projectiles momentum and converted it into upward movement. MACDUFF : Is the king stirring, worthy thane? A substance that did not encourage eternal life, however, gunpowder was used to treat skin diseases and as a fumigant to kill insects before its advantage as a weapon was made clear. [27], A keep was a great tower and usually the most strongly defended point of a castle before the introduction of concentric defence. [16], By 1083 the Song court was producing hundreds of thousands of fire arrows for their garrisons. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952. "Press cake" had the hardness of slate. In 1604 he publicly condemned Catholicism as a superstition, ordered all Catholic priests to leave England and expressed concern that the number of Catholics was increasing. All this takes no account of the garrison nor of purchases of material. This formed the basis for the Noble-Abel gas equation for internal ballistics. [203], As an alternative to the time-consuming task of creating a breach, an escalade could be attempted to capture the walls with fighting along the walkways behind the battlements. "[51] Secretary of the Army John McHugh was also humbled by their courage, stating "We remain grateful for and humbled by their extraordinary courage and valor." Senator James Webb asked the U.S. DoD Inspector General to formally examine the battle and the U.S. Army's investigation into the event. Charcoal does not consist of pure carbon; rather, it consists of partially pyrolyzed cellulose, in which the wood is not completely decomposed. Pfc. [11] The distant position was primarily defended by United States Army soldiers with 2nd Platoon, Chosen Company, 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment (Airborne), 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team. [63], The subject of the emergence of castles in Europe is a complex matter which has led to considerable debate. For example, shiro in Japan, described as castles by historian Stephen Turnbull, underwent "a completely different developmental history, were built in a completely different way and were designed to withstand attacks of a completely different nature". Gunpowder releases 3 megajoules per kilogram and contains its own oxidant. [11] A castle could act as a stronghold and prison but was also a place where a knight or lord could entertain his peers. While they thought it was possible the base might be attacked while the camp was being prepared, they thought it unlikely. Our knocking has awaked him; here he comes. Then, beginning in the late 18th century, the application of science to ballistics began to produce practical results. It is also used in fireworks for lifting shells, in rockets as fuel, and in certain special effects. [75], From 1000 onwards, references to castles in texts such as charters increased greatly. Before the era of The legend of Tristan and Iseult is one example of stories of courtly love told in the Middle Ages. [47], Some sources mention possible gunpowder weapons being deployed by the Mongols against European forces at the Battle of Mohi in 1241. This book covers it all: legalities, concepts of ballistics, a basic 12 gauge shotgun design from pipe, simple gunpowder recipes, primer material, reloading and much more - including designs for a homemade double barrel, a muzzleloader, pipe sizes for other calibers, and more! Use of the term has varied over time and has also been applied to structures such as hill forts and 19th-20th century homes built to resemble castles. Library Card Number or EZ Username PIN or EZ Password. [90] This is evidenced by the continual maintenance of timber castles over long periods, sometimes several centuries; Owain Glyndr's 11th-century timber castle at Sycharth was still in use by the start of the 15thcentury, its structure having been maintained for four centuries. These weapons were vulnerable to fire from the castle as they had a short range and were large machines. [167], The purpose of marriage between the medieval elites was to secure land. An example of this approach is Kerak. An earth and timber castle was cheaper and easier to erect than one built from stone. In an effort to make them more effective, guns were made ever bigger, although this hampered their ability to reach remote castles. In short order, the base's two heaviest weapons were knocked out, with the subsequent mortar explosion hurling anti-tank missiles into the command base's post. [135], Revival or mock castles became popular as a manifestation of a Romantic interest in the Middle Ages and chivalry, and as part of the broader Gothic Revival in architecture. Besides its use as a propellant in firearms and artillery, black powder's other main use has been as a blasting powder in quarrying, mining, and road construction (including railroad construction). This can rupture older weapons designed for black powder. [89] Although superseded by their stone successors, timber and earthwork castles were by no means useless. [78] By the end of the century firearms were also used by the Trn dynasty. [106] By 1882 German makers also produced hexagonal grained powders of a similar size for artillery.[106]. [5] The Taishang Shengzu Jindan Mijue mentions a formula composed of six parts sulfur to six parts saltpeter to one part birthwort herb. The Chinese began experimenting with the gunpowder-filled tubes. [189], As a static structure, castles could often be avoided. To protect them from undermining, curtain walls were sometimes given a stone skirt around their bases. As a result, many Catholics had high hopes when King James I took the throne upon Elizabeths death in 1603. Judging by the illustration, it was evidently supposed to glide across the water. When the cannon was fired through the touchhole, turbulence from the initial surface combustion caused the rest of the powder to be rapidly exposed to the flame. [113], This form is very common in castles adapted for guns, found in Egypt, Italy, Scotland, and Spain, and elsewhere in between. List of pre-Columbian inventions and innovations of indigenous Americans. This occurred because the reaction in an exploding charge of black powder was transmitted from grain to grain at a rate some 150 times greater than the rate at which the individual grains were consumed and because black powder burned in a complex series of parallel and mutually dependent exothermal (heat-producing) and endothermal (heat-absorbing) reactions that balanced each other out. [59] Some oppida walls were built on a massive scale, utilising stone, wood, iron and earth in their construction. [23] The Muslims acquired knowledge of gunpowder some time between 1240 and 1280, by which point the Syrian Hasan al-Rammah had written recipes, instructions for the purification of saltpeter, and descriptions of gunpowder incendiaries. As explosives, they all fall into the category of Class 1 . [56], Because the dry powdered ingredients must be mixed and bonded together for extrusion and cut into grains to maintain the blend, size reduction and mixing is done while the ingredients are damp, usually with water. WebGuy Fawkes Day, also called Bonfire Night, British observance, celebrated on November 5, commemorating the failure of the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. [73], Ever since the founding of the Sultanate of Mysore by Hyder Ali, French military officers were employed to train the Mysore Army. They planned to blow up This has been partly attributed to the higher cost of stone-built fortifications, and the obsolescence of timber and earthwork sites, which meant it was preferable to build in more durable stone. The men's pay has been and still is very much in arrears, and we are having the greatest difficulty in keeping them because they have simply nothing to live on. In quarrying, high explosives are generally preferred for shattering rock. H. Lechtman, "A Pre-Columbian Technique for Electrochemical Plating of Gold and Silver on Copper Objects," Journal of Metals 31 (1979): 15460, New perspectives on Moche Metallurgy: Techniques of Gilding Copper at Loma Negra, Northern Peru, Heather Lechtman, Antonieta Erlij, and Edward J. Barry. [103], In the early 13thcentury, Crusader castles were mostly built by Military Orders including the Knights Hospitaller, Knights Templar, and Teutonic Knights. [169] The lady was given a dower of her husband's estates usually about a third which was hers for life, and her husband would inherit on her death. [10] A Chinese alchemical text dated 492 noted saltpeter burnt with a purple flame, providing a practical and reliable means of distinguishing it from other inorganic salts, thus enabling alchemists to evaluate and compare purification techniques; the earliest Latin accounts of saltpeter purification are dated after 1200. The Battle of Wanat took place on July 13, 2008, when around 200 Taliban insurgents attacked American troops stationed near Quam, in the Waygal district of Afghanistan's far eastern Nuristan province. [3], The investigation also examined whether the Army had intelligence about a possible assault and whether the troops had access to it. Combat Studies Institute (U.S.), Combat Studies Institute (U.S.), and U.S. Army Combined Arms Center. A typical wall could be 3m (10ft) thick and 12m (39ft) tall, although sizes varied greatly between castles. Gunpowder was a simple mixture combined according to empirical recipes developed without benefit of theoretical knowledge of the underlying processes. [129], Although castle construction faded towards the end of the 16thcentury, castles did not necessarily all fall out of use. [45] Platoon leader Brostrom and company commander Captain Matthew Myer told their commanders that they expected a retaliatory attack and asked for extra surveillance. In terms of time, it has been estimated that an average sized motte 5m (16ft) high and 15m (49ft) wide at the summit would have taken 50people about 40working days. Bellis, Mary. The earliest gunpowder was made by grinding the ingredients separately and mixing them together dry. "On the Invention and Use of Fire-Arms and Gunpowder in China, Prior to the Arrival of European". [48], Battlements were most often found surmounting curtain walls and the tops of gatehouses, and comprised several elements: crenellations, hoardings, machicolations, and loopholes. [164] Licences to crenellate were also proof of a relationship with or favour from the monarch, who was the one responsible for granting permission. [7] As William the Conqueror advanced through England, he fortified key positions to secure the land he had taken. Some historians have even suggested that it was fabricated and that the authorities already knew of the Gunpowder Plot, only letting it progress as an excuse to further crack down on Catholicism. The result was an essentially constant burning rate that differed only with the grain size of the powder; the larger the grains, the less surface area exposed to combustion and the slower the rate at which propellant gases were produced. [53], Wanat Combat Action in Afghanistan 2008 page 19, Wanat Combat Action in Afghanistan 2008 page 97. In 950 Provence was home to 12castles, by 1000 this figure had risen to 30, and by 1030 it was over 100. (Sharp grains rounded off in transport, producing fine "meal dust" that changed the burning properties. Chinese Taoist alchemists were the major force behind the early invention of gunpowder. [38] Both were released within 24 hours, according to a spokesperson for the district chief. [3], About 4:20a.m. on July 13, Taliban forces opened fire on the base with machine guns, rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs), and mortars. After a rocket-propelled grenade wounded Sgt. The evidence included large stocks of weapons and ammunition discovered in the police barracks in Wanat after the battle. [204], Fortified residential structure of medieval Europe, This article is about medieval fortifications. Welcome to our best Black Friday sale yet. [80] Although stone construction would later become common elsewhere, from the 11thcentury onwards it was the primary building material for Christian castles in Spain,[81] while at the same time timber was still the dominant building material in north-west Europe. Especially common in Ireland and Scotland, they could be up to five storeys high and succeeded common enclosure castles and were built by a greater social range of people. [58] Many earthworks survive today, along with evidence of palisades to accompany the ditches. Cannons usually used lower burn-rate powders, because most would burst with higher burn-rate powders. Complete manufactured devices containing black powder are usually classified as Group D: Secondary detonating substance, or black powder, or article containing secondary detonating substance, such as firework, class D model rocket engine, etc., for shipment because they are harder to ignite than loose powder. Forming the damp paste into corn-sized clumps by hand or with the use of a sieve instead of larger balls produced a product after drying that loaded much better, as each tiny piece provided its own surrounding air space that allowed much more rapid combustion than a fine powder. [98], The current standard composition for the gunpowder manufactured by pyrotechnicians was adopted as long ago as 1780. Urban castles were used to control the local populace and important travel routes, and rural castles were often situated near features that were integral to life in the community, such as mills, fertile land, or a water source. Under him would have been knights who by benefit of their military training would have acted as a type of officer class. The larger towers provided space for habitation to make up for the loss of the donjon. [34] Arrowslits in the walls did not become common in Europe until the 13thcentury, for fear that they might compromise the wall's strength. [191] Cost also meant that in peacetime garrisons were smaller, and small castles were manned by perhaps a couple of watchmen and gate-guards. P. Brostrom, alerted Webb's office to the Army historian's report and became a vocal critic of the chain of command. [179] When built, a castle could result in the restructuring of the local landscape, with roads moved for the convenience of the lord. It was brought by the Islamic nations of West Asia, most probably the Arabs. [76] The increase in Italy began in the 950s, with numbers of castles increasing by a factor of three to five every 50years, whereas in other parts of Europe such as France and Spain the growth was slower. The initial Taliban radio transmissions that were intercepted reported that the "big gun [mortar tube] had been hit" and the Taliban commander had been killed. During the 19th century, outside of war emergencies such as the Crimean War or the American Civil War, more black powder was used in these industrial uses than in firearms and artillery. [49], Arrowslits, also commonly called loopholes, were narrow vertical openings in defensive walls which allowed arrows or crossbow bolts to be fired on attackers. Most of the Armenian military sites in Cilicia are characterized by: multiple bailey walls laid with irregular plans to follow the sinuosities of the outcrops; rounded and especially horseshoe-shaped towers; finely-cut often rusticated ashlar facing stones with intricate poured cores; concealed postern gates and complex bent entrances with slot machicolations; embrasured loopholes for archers; barrel, pointed or groined vaults over undercrofts, gates and chapels; and cisterns with elaborate scarped drains. On October 26, an anonymous letter advising a Catholic sympathizer to avoid the State Opening of Parliament alerted the authorities to the existence of a plot. "To Brew or Not to Brew: A Brief History of Beer in Canada". Lavoisier instituted a crash program to increase saltpeter production, revised (and later eliminated) the droit de fouille, researched best refining and powder manufacturing methods, instituted management and record-keeping, and established pricing that encouraged private investment in works. Hammer, the Mamluks certainly used cannons by 1342. The gunpowder area of the Ardeer site closed in October 1976. WebPaving the way for generations to come, more than 20,000 Montford Point Marines made history winning crucial battles for our Nation in the Pacific, Korea, and Vietnam. Cai Guo-Qiang, (born December 8, 1957, Quanzhou, Fujian province, China), Chinese pyrotechnical artist known for his dramatic installations and for using gunpowder as a medium. WebThe Powder River was named because of the gunpowder-colored sand on its banks. [36][37] The author's name is uncertain but may have been Shams al-Din Muhammad, who died in 1350. Gunpowder is a low explosive: it does not detonate, but rather deflagrates (burns quickly). The resultant powder behaved differently from anything previously known. Between 1066 and 1087, he established 36castles such as Warwick Castle, which he used to guard against rebellion in the English Midlands. "List of pre-Columbian inventions and innovations of indigenous Americans", Learn how and when to remove this template message, Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas, indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands, Painting in the Americas before European colonization, "The Prehispanic Computer? The keep of these Crusader castles would have had a square plan and generally be undecorated. The benefits of large guns over trebuchets the most effective siege engine of the Middle Ages before the advent of gunpowder were those of a greater range and power. Nasiruddin Mahmud tried to express his strength as a ruler and tried to ward off any Mongol attempt similar to the Siege of Baghdad (1258). In 864 the King of West Francia, Charles the Bald, prohibited the construction of castella without his permission and ordered them all to be destroyed. [14] Their goal was to create a Combat Outpost (COP) to connect with and provide security for the local populace, coordinate $1.4 million in reconstruction projects, and disrupt Taliban activity. [35], The entrance was often the weakest part in a circuit of defences. Gunpowder, until superseded, was a universal explosive used in the military and for civil engineering: both applications required storage magazines.Most magazines were purely functional and tended to be in remote and Crenellation is the collective name for alternating crenels and merlons: gaps and solid blocks on top of a wall. [75]:12[76][77]:220 Cannons were used by the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1352 during its invasion of the Khmer Empire. [19] Still in preparation at the time of the attack, some areas were only protected by a barrier of concertina wire, but with no posts or stakes; the wire was simply stretched out on the ground. The narrow slits were intended to protect the defender by providing a very small target, but the size of the opening could also impede the defender if it was too small. [69], The shipwrecked Ottoman Admiral Seydi Ali Reis is known to have introduced the earliest type of matchlock weapons, which the Ottomans used against the Portuguese during the Siege of Diu (1531). New cleaning products for black-powder guns have also been developed for this market.[120]. Their decoration emulated Romanesque architecture, and sometimes incorporated double windows similar to those found in church bell towers. [68], A bank and ditch enclosure was a simple form of defence, and when found without an associated motte is called a ringwork; when the site was in use for a prolonged period, it was sometimes replaced by a more complex structure or enhanced by the addition of a stone curtain wall. [32] The manuscript describes a type of gunpowder weapon called a midfa which uses gunpowder to shoot projectiles out of a tube at the end of a stock. A carefully determined empty space was necessary for the charge to burn effectively. Intelligence reports said that the FOB was going to be overrun from within the base as well. [original research?] The Gunpowder Plot was a failed attempt to blow up Englands King James I and the Parliament on November 5, 1605. [127] The ingredients are reduced in particle size and mixed as intimately as possible. Whereas charcoal's autoignition temperature is relatively low, carbon's is much greater. Larger lordships could be vast, and it would be impractical for a lord to visit all his properties regularly, so deputies were appointed. Gunpowder does not burn as a single reaction, so the byproducts are not easily predicted. Gunpowder has occasionally been employed for other purposes besides weapons, mining, fireworks and construction: "India." In motte-and-bailey castles, the keep was on top of the motte. [129], The following year (1864) the Gatebeck Low Gunpowder Works in Cumbria (Great Britain) started a plant to manufacture potassium nitrate by essentially the same chemical process. Some of it is ejected, wasting propelling power, fouling the air, and generally being a nuisance (giving away a soldier's position, generating fog that hinders vision, etc.). "[59] In 1774 Louis XVI ascended to the throne of France at age 20. Late medieval and early modern gunners preferred large-grained powder for cannon, medium-grained powder for shoulder arms, and fine-grained powder for pistols and primingand they were correct in their preferences. They had to be high enough to make scaling the walls with ladders difficult and thick enough to withstand bombardment from siege engines which, from the 15thcentury onwards, included gunpowder artillery. WebSave up to 250 on BT TV packages with our Black Friday half price offer. This led to the elevation of windows to the second storey to make it harder to throw objects in and to move the entrance from ground level to the second storey. Legends were discredited, and in the case of James of Saint George it was proven that he came from Saint-Georges-d'Espranche, in France. [100] In 1857, Lammot du Pont solved the main problem of using cheaper sodium nitrate formulations when he patented DuPont "B" blasting powder. Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow decomposition rate and consequently low brisance. The Dutch punishment for possession of non-permitted gunpowder appears to have been amputation. This adaptation is found across Europe, and although the timber rarely survives, there is an intact example at Castle Doornenburg in the Netherlands. Classical biological control involves the introduction of natural enemies of the pest that are bred in Technische Hchstleistungen ihrer Zeit". A Jesuit priest was also executed a few months later for his alleged involvement, even as new laws banned Catholics from voting in elections, practicing law or serving in the military. Importantly, while castles had military aspects, they contained a recognisable household structure within their walls, reflecting the multi-functional use of these buildings. [20][21] In the late 13th-century metal fire lances became 'eruptors', proto-cannons firing co-viative projectiles (mixed with the propellant, rather than seated over it with a wad), and by 1287 at the latest, had become true guns, the hand cannon. [5] Feudalism was the link between a lord and his vassal where, in return for military service and the expectation of loyalty, the lord would grant the vassal land. Fish ponds were a luxury of the lordly elite, and many were found next to castles. The dust from "repairing" powder in the field was a major hazard. The Old English castel, Occitan castel or chastel, French chteau, Spanish castillo, Portuguese castelo, Italian castello, and a number of words in other languages also derive from castellum. The Gunpowder Plot conspirators, led by Robert Catesby, were zealous Roman Catholics enraged at King James I for refusing to grant greater religious tolerance to Catholics. Fort Longueuil, built from 1695 to 1698 by a baronial family, has been described as "the most medieval-looking fort built in Canada". soldiers, they set up firing positions inside Kors and a mosque next to and overlooking the perimeter. [153] Brick-built structures were not necessarily weaker than their stone-built counterparts. Cais fathera painter, historian, and bookstore ownerwas somewhat ambivalent toward Mao Zedong and the new Chinese society that was Lieutenant General Richard F. Natonski conducted another investigation in late 2009 which led to orders of reprimand for the chain of command. The high cost, relative to other castles of its type, was because labourers had to be imported.[143]. In late 14th century Europe and China,[114] gunpowder was improved by wet grinding; liquid, such as distilled spirits[56] was added during the grinding-together of the ingredients and the moist paste dried afterwards. 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